The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 3)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

This is the third part on Linnaeus’ classification of plants. See here parts 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

7. Heptandria (“seven males”)

“Seven husbands in each marriage”, i.e., seven stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

7.1 Heptandria Monogynia (“seven males and one female”), seven stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Trientalis (wintergreens), Aesculus (buckeyes).

7.2 Heptandria Digynia (“seven males and two females”), seven stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Limeum (limeums).

The chickweed-wintergreen (Trientalis europaea, left) and the horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum, center) were in the order Heptandria Monogynia, while the African limeum (Limeum africanum, right) was in the order Heptandria Digynia. Credits to Beth Loft (wintergreen), wikimedia user Opuntia (horse-chestnut), and Malcolm Manners (limeum).

8. Octandria (“eight males”)

“Eight husbands in each marriage”, i.e., eight stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

8.1 Octandria Monogynia (“eight males and one female”), eight stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Tropaeloum (nasturtiums), Osbeckia (osbeckias), Rhexia (meadow-beauties), Oenothera (evening-primroses), Gaura (beeblossoms), Epilobium (willowherbs), Combretum (bushwillows), Grislea (one more bushwillow), Allophylus (pigeon’s-eyes), Mimusops (longcherries), Jambolifera (paolay), Amyris (torchwoods), Santalum (sandalwoods), Memecylon (blue foams), Lawsonia (henna tree), Vaccinium (blueberries, cranberries and bilberries), Erica (heathers), Daphne (daphnes), Dirca (leatherwoods), Gnidia (gnidias), Stellera (stelleras), Passerina (sparrowshrubs), Lachnaea (lachnaeas), Baeckea (heathmyrtles).

All the above plants were put by Linnaeus in the order Octandria Monogynia (from left to right, top to bottom): garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), Chinese osbeckia (Osbeckia chinensis), Virginia meadow-beauty (Rhexia virginica), common evening-primrose (Oenothera biennis), biennial beeblossom (Gaura biennis), hairy willowherb (Epilobium hirsutum), orange flame vine (Combretum occidentale, now Combretum fruticosum), Spanish cherry (Mimusops elengi), paolay (Jambolifera pedunculata, now Acronychia pedunculata), sea torchwood (Amyris elemifera), Indian sandalwood (Santalum album), henna tree (Lawsonia inermis), swamp blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), bell heather (Erica cinerea), February daphne (Daphne mezereum), eastern leatherwood (Dirca palustris), tomentous gnidia (Gnidia tomentosa), ground-jasmine (Stellera chamaejasme), ciliate sparrowshrub (Passerina ciliata, now Struthiola ciliata), shrubby heathmyrtle (Baeckea frutescens). Credits to Franz Xaver (osbeckia), Isidre Blanc (willowherb), Noel Leindekar (orange flame vine), Nyanatusita Bhikkhu (paolay), Smithsonian Institue (torchwood), J. M. Garg (sandalwood), Kurt Stüber (blueberry), Enrico Blasutto (daphne), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (leatherwood), Peter Baker (gnidia), Jan Reurink (ground-jasmine), Missouri Botanical Garden (sparrowshrub), Wibowo Djamitko (heathmyrtle), Wikimedia users Armon (nasturtium), TeunSpaans (evening-primrose), Tu7uh (henna tree), Peigimccann (heather), and flickr user Lalithamba (Spanish cherry).

8.2 Octandria Digynia (“eight males and two females”), eight stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Galenia (galenias), Weinmannia (weinmannias), Moehringia (moss sandworts).

These were the only three species in the order Octandria Digynia (from left to right): African galenia (Galenia Africana), pinnate weinmannia (Weinmannia pinnata), common moss-sandwort (Moehringia muscosa). Credits to Wikimedia user Jklaasen (galenia), Stan Shebs (weinmannia).

8.3 Octandria Trigynia (“eight males and three females”), eight stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Polygonum (knotweeds), Coccoloba (pigeonplums and seagrapes), Paullinia (caruru vines), Cardiospermum (planta-balão), Sapindus (soapberries).

The order Octandria Trigynia included (from left to right) the common knotweed (Polygonum aviculare), the common seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera), the bunchy caruru-vine (Paullinia pinnata), the balloon plant (Cardiospermum halicacabum), and the western soapberry (Sapindus saponaria). Credits to Daniel di Palma (seagrape), Marco Schmidt (caruru-vine), João Medeiros (soapberry), and Wikimedia users Dalgial (knotweed) and KENPEI (balloon plant).

8.4 Octandria Tetragynia (“eight males and four females”), eight stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Paris (lover’s knots), Adoxa (moschatel), Elatine (waterworts).

The true lover’s knot (Paris quadrifolia, left), the moschatel (Adoxa moschatellina, center) and the common waterwort (Elatine alsinastrum, right) were in the order Octandria Tetragynia. Credits to Stefan Lefnaer (waterwort) and Wikimedia users Rasbak (lover’s knot) and Pleple2000 (moschatel).

9. Enneandria (“nine males”)

“Nine husbands in each marriage”, i.e., nine stammens in a hermaphrodite flower.

9.1 Enneandria monogynia (“nine males and one female”), nine stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Laurus (laurel, cinnamon, avocado, etc), Tinus (western clethra).

9.2 Enneandria trigynia (“nine males and three females”), nine stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Rheum (rhubarbs).

9.3 Enneandria hexagynia (“nine males and six females”), nine stamens and six pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Butomus (flowering rushes).

(From left to right) The bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) and the western clethra (Tinus occidentalis, now Clethra mexicana) were in the order Enneandria Monogynia; the rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) was in the order Enneandria Trigynia; and the flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus) was in the order Enneandria Hexagynia. Credits to Júlio Reis (laurel), Christian Fischer (flowering rush), and Wikimedia user Rasbak (rhubarb).

10. Decandria (“ten males”)

“Ten husbands in each marriage”, i.e., ten stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

10.1 Decandria Monogynia (“ten males and one female”), ten stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Sophora (necklace pods), Anagyris (oro de risco), Cercis (redbuds), Bauhinia (orchid trees), Hymenaea (courbaril), Parkinsonia (palo verde), Cassia (cassias and sennas), Poinciana (poinciana), Caesalpinia (nickers), Guilandia (moringas), Guaiacum (lignum-vitaes), Cynometra (dog’s mothers), Anacardium (cashew tree), Dictamnus (burning bush), Ruta (rues), Toluifera (Tolu balsam tree), Haematoxylum (logwood), Adenanthera (red lucky tree), Trichilia (trichilias), Melia (chinaberry tree and neem), Zygophyllum (bean capers), Fagonia (fagonbushes), Tribulus (puncture vines), Monotropa (dutchman’s pipe), Jussiaea (water primroses), Melastoma (blue tongues, melastomes, johnnyberries, etc), Kalmia (lambkills), Ledum (wild rosemary), Rhododendrum (rhodies), Andromeda (bog rosemaries, moss heathers), Epigaea (mayflower), Gaultheria (boxberry), Arbutus (strawberry trees), Clethra (summersweet), Pyrola (wintergreens), Samyda (cramantees), Bucida (bullet tree).

The order Decandria Monogynia included (from left to right, top to bottom): common necklace-pod (Sophora tomentosa), oro de risco (Anagyris foetida), Judas tree (Cercis siliquastrum), dwarf white orchid-tree (Bauhinia acuminata), courbaril (Hymenaea courbaril), palo verde (Parkinsonia aculeata), golden shower tree (Cassia fistula), poinciana (Poinciana pulcherrima, now Caesalpinia pulcherrima), sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan), moringa (Guilandia moringa, now Moringa oleifera), roughbark lignum-vitae (Guaiacum officinale), common dog’s mother (Cynometra cauliflora), cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale), burning bush (Dictamnus albus), common rue (Ruta graveolens), Tolu balsam tree (Toluifera balsamum, now Myroxylon balsamum), logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum), red lucky tree (Adenanthera pavonina), chinaberry tree (Melia azedarach), Syrian beancaper (Zygophyllum fabago), Cretan fagonbush (Fagonia cretica), common puncture vine (Tribulus terrestris), common Dutchman’s pipe (Monotropa hypopitys), Peruvian water primrose (Jussiaea peruviana, now Ludwigia peruviana), Malabar melastome (Melastoma malabathricum), Mountain lambkill (Kalmia latifolia), wild rosemary (Ledum palustre, now Rhododendron tomentosum), rusty-leaved alpenrose (Rhododendrum ferrugineum), bog-rosemary (Andromeda polifolia), mayflower (Epigaea repens), boxberry (Gaultheria procumbens), common strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), summersweet (Clethra alnifolia), round-leaved wintergreen (Pyrola rotundifolia), true cramantee (Samyda guidonia, now Guarea Guidonia), bullet tree (Bucida buceras). Credits to Forest & Kim Starr (necklace pod, lignum-vitae, water primrose, bullet tree), Luis Nunes Alberto (oro de risco), Jeevan Jose (orchid tree), Stan Shebs (palo verde, poinciana), J. M. Garg (golden shower tree), W.A. Djamtiko (dog’s mother), Radomił Binek (burning bush), Franz Xaver (rue, melastome), Quirico Jimenez (Tolu balsam tree), Shih-Shiuan Kao (chinaberry tree), Ariel Palmon (puncture vine), Bernd Haynold (Dutchman’s pipe), Jason Hollinger (lambkill, boxberry), Muriel Bendel (wild rosemary, alpenrose), Jacob W. Frank (bog-rosemary), H. Zell (summersweet), Erlend Bjørtvedt (wintergreen), João Medeiros (cramantee), flickr user yimhafiz (moringa), and Wikimedia users Kousvet (Judas tree), Conrado (courbaril), Vinayaraj (sappanwood, cashew tree), Reefmonky (logwood), Delonix (red lucky tree), Philmarin (beancaper, strawberry tree) and Llez (fagonbush).

10.2 Decandria Digynia (“ten males and two females”), ten stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Royena (bladdernuts), Hydrangea (hydrangeas), Cunonia (butterspoon tree), Chrysosplenium (golden saxifrages), Saxifraga (saxifrages or rockfoils), Tiarella (foamflowers), Mitella (miterworts), Scleranthus (knawels), Gypsophila (baby’s-breaths), Saponaria (soapworts), Dianthus (carnations, pinks).

Among the species in the order Decandria Digynia, we can cite (from left to right, top to bottom): bladdernut (Royena lucida, now Diospyros whyteana), smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescenes), butterspoon tree (Cunonia capensis), alternate-leaved golden-saxifrage (Chrysosplenium alternifolium), great Alpine rockfoil (Saxifraga cotyledon), heart-leaved foamflower (Tiarella cordifolia), two-leaved miterwort (Mitella diphylla), annual knawel (Scleranthus annuus), Alpine baby’s-breath (Gypsophila repens), common soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus). Credits to Marco Schmidt (bladdernut), Kurt Stüber (butterspoon tree), Krzysztof Ziarnek (golden-saxifrage), Derek Ramsey (foamflower), André Karwath (baby’s-breath), Karel Jakobec (soapwort), and Wikimedia users KENPEI (hydrangea), Ghislain118 (rockfoil), Cbaile19 (miterwort), 4028mdk09 (carnation).

10.3 Decandria Trigynia (“ten males and three females”), ten stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Drypis (mekinyak), Cucubalus (catchflies), Silene (more catchflies), Stellaria (starworts), Arenaria (sandworts), Cherleria (cherleria), Garidella (garidella), Schinus (pepper trees), Malpighia (acerolas), Banisteria (chewstick, amazonvines, hiptage etc), Triopteris (hiptage), Erythroxylon (redwoods).

These 10 species (from left to right, top to bottom) were put by Linnaeus in the order Decandria Trigynia: mekinyak (Drypis spinosa), starry catchfly (Cucubalus stellatus, now Silene stellata), small-flowered catchfly (Silene gallica), wood starwort (Stellaria nemorum), thyme-leaved sandwort (Arenaria serpyllifolia), cherleria (Cherleria sedoides, now Minuartia sedoides), Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle), wild acerola (Malpighia glabra), hiptage (both Banisteria benghalensis and Triopteris jamaicensis, now Hiptage benghalensis), swamp redwood (Erythroxylon areolatum, now Erythroxylum areolatum). Credits to C T Johansson (mekinyak), Gideon Pisanty (small-flowered catchfly), Anneli Salo (starwort), Thomas Mathis (cherleria), Juuyoh Tanaka (acerola), Smithsonian Institute (redwood), and Wikimedia users Fornax (sandwort), Appaloosa (pepper tree), Forestowlet (hiptage).

10.4 Decandria Pentagynia (“ten males and four females”), ten stamens and five pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Averrhoa (bilimbi and starfruit), Spondias (hog plum trees), Cotyledon (several succulent plants), Sedum (stonecrops and long-livings), Penthorum (ditch stonecrop), Oxalis (woodsorrels), Agrostemma (corncockles), Lychhnis (campinos or catchflies), Cerastium (mouse-ears), Spergula (spurries).

The order Decandria Pentagynia included this 10 species (from left to right, top to bottom): starfruit tree (Averrhoa carambola), mombin (Spondias mombin), pig’s ear (Cotyledon orbiculata), blue stonecrop (Sedum rupestre), ditch stonecrop (Penthorum sedoides), common woodsorrel (Oxalis acetosella), common corncockle (Agrostemma githago), ragged-robin (Lychnis flos-cuculi), field mouse-ear (Cerastium arvense), corn spurry (Spergula arvensis). Credits to Marco Schmidt (mombin), JJ Harrison (pig’s ear), Isidre Blanc (blue stonecrop), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (ditch stonecrop), Krzysztof Ziarnek (corncockle), Kristian Peters (mouse-ear), and Wikimedia users Pinus (starfruit), Jeffdelonge (woodsorrel), Aiwok (ragged-robin), Rasbak (spurry).

10.4 Decandria Decagynia (“ten males and ten females”), ten stamens and ten pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Neurada (neurada), Phytolacca (pokeweeds).

The creeping-neurada (Neurada procumbens, left) and the American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana, right) were among the few species in the order Decandria Decagynia. Credits to Ori-Fragman Sapir (neurada) and Joshua Mayer (pokeweed).

11. Dodecandria (“twelve males”)

“Twelve husbands in each marriage”, i.e., twelve stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

11.1 Dodecandria Monogynia (“twelve males and one female”), twelve stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Asarum (wild gingers), Gethyllis (kukumakranka), Rhizophora (true mangroves), Garcinia (mangosteens), Styrax (snowballs), Blakea (an unknown species), Crataeva (cratevas), Triumfetta (burbarks), Peganum (Syrian rue), Nitraria (nitre bushes), Portulaca (purslanes), Lythrum (false loosestrifes), Winterana (wild canella).

Linnaeus put these 10 plants in his order Dodecandria Monogynia (from left to right, top to bottom): European wild ginger (Asarum europaeum), red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), common snowball (Styrax officinalis), little silverbell (Halesia carolina), Syrian rue (Peganum harmala), common nitre bush (Nitraria schoberi), common purslane (Portulaca oleracea), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), wild canella (Winterana canella, now Canella winterana). Credits to Ulf Mehlig (mangrove), Michael Herrmann (mangosteen), Kurt Stüber (Syrian rue), Ana Maria Radu (nitre bush), Ton Rulkens (purslane), Ivar Leidus (purple loosestrife), Smithsonian Insitute (canella) and Wikimedia users Algirdas (wild ginger), Hectonichus (snowball), JMK (silverbell).

11.2 Dodecandria Digynia (“twelve males and two females”), twelve stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Heliocarpus (majagua), Agrimonia (agrimonies).

11.3 Dodecandria Trigynia (“twelve males and three females”), twelve stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Reseda (mignonettes), Euphorbia (spurges).

The two upper species, majagua (Heliocarpus americanus) and common agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) were in the order Dodecandria Digynia, while the lower two, wild mignonette (Reseda lutea) and Canary Island spurge (Euphorbia canariensis), were in the order Dodecandria Trigynia. Credits to Alejandro Bayer Tamayo (majagua), H. Zell (agrimony), Hans Hillewaert (mignonette), Frank Vicentz (spurge).

11.4 Dodecandria Pentagynia (“twelve males and five females”), twelve stamens and five pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Glinus (sweetjuices).

11.5 Dodecandria Octagynia (“twelve males and eight females”), twelve stamens and eight pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Illicium (star-anise).

11.5 Dodecandria Dodecagynia (“twelve males and twelve females”), twelve stamens and twelve pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Sempervivium (houseleeks).

The lotus sweetjuice (Glinus lotoides, left) was the only species in the order Dodecandria Pentagynia. The Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum, center) was the only species in the order Dodecandria Octagynia. The roof houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum, right) was one of the few species in the order Dodecandria Dodecagynia. Credits to Mark Marathon (sweetjuice), François van der Biest (houseleek) and Wikimedia user KENPEI (star anise).

Ufff…. Will it ever end? Yes, it will, but it will take some time yet… Afterall, plants were Linnaeus’ great passion.

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References:

Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae…

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All works are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Friday Fellow: Sally Lightfoot

by Piter Kehoma Boll

Running delicately on the tip of its feet like a ballerina, our first crustacean fellow comes from the Pacific coast of the Americas and is commonly called “sally lightfoot”. Scientifically it is known as Grapsus grapsus, a name that sounds like something gnawing, or grasping, as if it was intended to represent its large claws and small mouth working together to scratch algae from the rocky shores it inhabits.

A sally lightfoot in the Galapagos Islands. Photo by A. Davey.* (flickr.com/photos/adavey/)

The sally lightfoot is found on the Pacific coasts of the Americas from Mexico to northern Chile, in the Galapagos Islands and in several Islands in the western Atlantic, such as the Caribbean Islands and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago in Brazil. Specimens from the Pacific usually grow up to 80 mm or more in length, while those in the Saint Paul Island are smaller, reaching about 70 mm. Males are slightly larger than females.

As most crabs, the sally lightfoot is a detritivore, feeding on dead animals and other detrites, but seems to be primarily a herbivore, feeding on algae that it scrapes (graps graps graps…) off rocks. It can also, eventually, capture small animals, and there are reports of specimens having a relationship as cleaners with marine iguanas in the Galapagos Islands, scraping ticks (graps graps graps…) of the iguanas’ skin.

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References:

EOL, Encyclopedia of Life. Sally Lightfoot Crab. Available at: < http://eol.org/pages/1021865/ >. Access on May 6, 2016.

Freire, A. S.; Pinheiro, M. A. A.; Karam-Silva, H.; Teschima, M. M. 2011. Biology of Grapsus grapsus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Brachyura, Grapsidae) in the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Helgoland Marine Research, 65 (3): 263–273.

Wikipedia. Grapsus grapsus. Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapsus_grapsus&gt;. Access on May 6, 2016.

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*
This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic License.

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 2)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

This posts continues to present the classification of plants according to Linnaeus that started in part 1. Se also parts 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

5. Pentandria (“five males”)

“Five husbands in each marriage”, i.e., five stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

5.1 Pentandria monogynia (“five males and one female”), five stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Heliotropium (heliotropes), Myosotis (forget-me-nots), Lithospermum (gromwells),  Anchusa (buglosses), Cynoglossum (houndstongues), Pulmonaria (lungworts), Symphytum (comfreys), Cerinthe (honeyworts), Borago (borages), Asperugo (madwort), Lycopsis (monksworts), Echium (viper’s bugloss), Varronia (varronia), Tournefortia (soldier’s bushes), Chiococca (cahincas), Diapensia (pincushions), Aretia (Alpine rock-jasmine), Androsace (rock-jasmines), Primula (primroses), Cortusa (Alpine bells), Soldanella (snowbells), Dodecatheon (shooting stars), Cyclamen (cyclamens), Menyanthes (bogbeans), Hottonia (water violets), Hydrophyllum (waterleaves), Lysimachia (loosestrifes), Anagallis (pimpernels), Theophrasta (theophrastas), Patagonula (patagonulas), Spigelia (pinkroots), Ophiorrhiza (snakeroots), Randia (indigoberries), Azalea (azaleas), Plumbago (leadworts), Phlox (phloxes), Convolvulus (bindweeds), Ipomoea (morning glories), Polemonium (Jacob’s ladders), Campanula (bellflowers), Roella (roellas), Phyteuma (rampions), Trachelium (throatworts), Samolus (brookweeds), Rondeletia (Panama roses), Portlandia (Jamaican bells), Bellonia (bellonias), Cinchona (quinines), Psychotria (wild coffees), Coffea (coffee), Lonicera (honeysuckles), Triosteum (horse-gentians), Erithalis (blacktorches), Morinda (morindas), Conocarpus (button trees), Mussaenda (mussaendas), Genipa (genipapo), Mirabilis (four o’clocks), Coris (bugflowers), Verbascum (mulleins), Datura (trumpets), Hyoscyamus (henbanes), Nicotiana (tobacco plants), Atropa (nightshades and mandrakes), Physalis (groundcherries), Solanum (nightshades, tomatoes, potato, aubergine), Capsicum (bell peppers, chili peppers), Strychnos (strychnine trees), Chironia (chironias), Cordia (manjacks), Brunfelsia (brunfelsias), Ehretia (ehretias), Cestrum (cestrums), Lycium (boxthorns), Chrysophyllum (goldleaves), Sideroxylon (bully trees), Rhamnus (buckthorns), Phylica (cape myrtles), Ceanothus (wild lilacs), Myrsine (African boxwood), Celastrus (staff vines), Euonymus (spindles), Hartogia (Cape buchu), Byttneria (byttnerias), Diosma (diosmas), Brunia (brunias), Itea (sweetspires), Galax (wandplant), Cedrela (new world cedars), Mangifera (magoes), Cupania (cupanias), Ribes (gooseberries and currants), Gronovia (gronovia), Hedera (ivies), Vitis (grape vines), Lagoecia (lagoecias), Sauvagesia (sauvagesias), Claytonia (miner’s lettuces), Achyranthes (chaff-flowers), Celosia (cockscombs), Illecebrum (coral necklace), Glaux (sea milkweed), Thesium (thesiums), Rauvolfia (devil-pepper), Cerbera (mango mangroves), Vinca (periwinkles), Nerium (oleanders), Plumeria (plumerias), Cameraria (camerarias), Tabernaemontana (milkwoods), Ceropegia (strings of hearts).

More than a hundred genera made up the order Pentandria Monogynia. Among the species there were (from left to right, top to bottom): European heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum), true forget-me-not (Myosotis scorpioides), common gromwell (Lithospermum officinale), common bugloss (Anchusa officinalis), common houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale), common lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis), common comfrey (Symphytum officinale), common honeywort (Cerinthe major), common borage (Borago officinalis), madwort (Asperugo procumbens), red monkswort (Lycopsis vesicaria, now Nonea vesicaria), Italian viper’s bugloss (Echium italicum), cahinca (Chiococca alba), pincushion (Diapensia lapponica), northern rock-jasmine (Androsace septentrionalis), cowslip (Primula veris), Alpine bells (Cortusa matthioli or Primula matthioli), Alpine snowbell (Soldanella alpina), common shooting star (Dodecatheon meadia), European cyclamen (Cyclamen purpurascens), bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), water violet (Hottonia palustris), Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum), yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia vulgaris), red pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis), American theophrasta (Theophrasta americana), white indigoberry (Randia aculeata), Japanese azalea (Azalea indica, now Rhododendron indicum), Ceylon leadwort (Plumbago zeylanica), garden phlox (Phlox paniculata), field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), cypress vine (Ipomoea quamoclit), common Jacob’s ladder (Polemonium caeruleum), giant bellflower (Campanula latifolia), round-headed rampion (Phyteuma orbiculare), blue throatwort (Trachelium caeruleum), seaside brookweed (Samolus valerandi), common Jamaican bell (Portlandia grandiflora), coffee (Coffea arabica), Italian honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium), common blacktorch (Erithalis fruticosa), great morinda (Morinda citrifolia), common button tree (Conocarpus erectus), wild mussaenda (Mussaenda frondosa), genipapo (Genipa americana), common four o’clock (Mirabilis jalapa), common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), common devil’s trumpet (Datura metel), black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), common tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), common groundcherry (Physalis viscosa), potato (Solanum tuberosum), bell pepper (Capsicum annuum), nux vomica (Strynchos nux-vomica), Assyrian plum (Cordia myxa), American brunfelsia (Brunfelsia americana), night-blooming cestrum (Cestrum nocturnum), goji (Lycium barbarum), satinleaf (Chrysophyllum oliviforme), common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), mountain sweet (Ceanothus americanus), African boxwood (Myrsine africana), American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), European spindle (Euonymus europaeus), Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica), Cuban cedar (Cedrela odorata), mango tree (Mangifera indica), red currant (Ribes rubrum), common ivy (Hedera helix), grape vine (Vitis vinifera), Siberian miner’s lettuce (Claytonia sibirica), common chaff-flower (Achyranthes aspera), common cockscomb (Celosia cristata), coral necklace (Illecebrum verticillatum), sea milkweed (Glaux maritima, now Lysimachia maritima), devil-pepper (Rauvolfia tetraphylla), sea mango (Cerbera manghas), lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor), oleander (Nerium oleander), red plumeria (Plumeria rubra), broad-leaf cameraria (Cameraria latifolia), string of hearts (Ceropegia candelabrum). Credits to Ivar Leidus (forget-me-not), Hans Hillewaert (gromwell, honeywort), Andreas Eichler (bugloss, comfrey), H. Zell (borage, cowslip, coffee, tobacco, potato, mountain sweet, spindle), Hermann Schachner (madwort), Scott Zona (cahinca, cameraria), Opioła Jerzy (Alpine bells), Agnes Monkelbaan (cyclamen), J.-H. Janßen (water violet), Frank Vicentz (loosestrife, cockscomb), Reuven Karp (pimpernel), Smithsonian Institute (theophrasta), Bob Peterson (indigoberry), J. M. Garg (leadwort), Anneli Salo (bindweed), Hafiz Issadeen (cypress vine), Erlend Bjørtvedt (bellflower), Javier Martin (throatwort), Raffi Kojian (Jamaican bell), Stefan Lefnaer (honeysuckle), Callie Oldfield (blacktorch), Ulf Mehlig (button tree), João Medeiros (genipapo), Zoya Akulova (groundcherry), Marco Schmidt (Assyrian plum), Andel Früh (brunfelsia), Cary Bass (cestrum), Danny S. (goji), Homer Edward Price (satinleaf), Krzysztof Ziarnek (buckthorn), Carla Antonini (mango), Stefan Kampf (currant), Isidre Blanc (ivy), Wouter Hagens (grape vine), Walter Siegmund (miner’s lettuce), Jeevan Jose (chaff-flower), Christian Fischer (sea milkweed), Christer Johansson (periwinkle), Ian W. Fieggen (oleander), Indian Biodiversity Portal (string of hearts), and Wikimedia users Aroche (heliotrope, brookweed), Fornax (houndstongue, rock jasmine), Belladona2 (lungwort), Cerencin (viper’s bugloss), Alinja (pincushion), Cptcv (snowbell), Uoaei1 (bogbean), Jnn (azalea), Epibase (phlox), Tigerente (rampion), The Photographer (morinda), Vinayaraj (mussaenda, nux vomica, devil pepper), Wildfeuer (four o’clock), 428mdk09 (mullein), Better days came (trumpet), Imanrtin6 (henbane), Aktron (nightshade), Carstor (bell pepper), JMK (African boxwood), SB_Johnny (sweetspire), Weddi (coral necklace), BotBln (sea mango), and KayEss (plumeria).

5.2 Pentandria digynia (“five males and two females”), five stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Periploca (silkvines), Cynanchum (dog-strangling vines), Apocynum (dogbanes), Asclepias (milkweeds), Stapelia (carrion flowers), Herniaria (rupturewort), Chenopodium (goosefoots), Beta (beets), Salsola (saltworts), Anabasis (anabases), Cressa (alkaliweeds), Trianthema (pigweeds), Gomphrena (bachelor buttons), Bosea (yervamora), Ulmus (elms), Nama (fiddleleaves), Heuchera (alumroots), Swertia (felworts), Gentiana (gentians), Phyllis (phyllis), Eryngium (sea hollies), Hydrocotyle (water pennyworts), Sanicula (sanicles), Astrantia (masterworts), Bupleurum (hare’s ears), Echinophora (thorn-bearers), Tordylium (hartworts), Caucalis (bur-parsley), Artedia (artedia), Daucus (carrots), Ammi (false bishop’s weeds), Bunium (black cumin), Conium (hemlocks), Selinum (milk parsleys), Athamanta (athamantas), Peucedanum (hog’s fennels), Crithmum (sea fennels), Cachrys (cachrys), Hasselquistia (Egyptian hartwort), Ferula (giant fennels and asafoetidas), Laserpitium (sermountains), Heracleum (hogweeds), Ligusticum (lovages), Angelica (angelicas), Sium (water-parsnips), Sison (stone-parsnips), Bubon (mountain-parsnips), Cuminum (cumin), Oenanthe (water dropworts), Phellandrium (water dropworts and lovages), Cicuta (water hemlocks), Aethusa (fool’s parsley), Coriandrum (corianders), Sandix (cicelies and shepherd’s-needles), Chaerophyllum (chervils), Imperatoria (true masterwort), Seseli (moon carrots and fennels), Thapsia (deadly carrots), Pastinaca (parsnips), Smyrnium (alexanders), Anethum (dill), Carum (caraway), Pimpinella (anis), Apium (celery and parsley), Aegopodium (ground elders).

The order Pentandria Digynia included the following species (from left to right, top to bottom): common silkvine (Periploca graeca), acute dog-strangling vine (Cynanchum acutum), fly-trap dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium), white milkweed (Asclepias variegata), starfish flower (Stapelia hirsuta), smooth rupturewort (Herniaria glabra), white goosefoot (Chenopodium album), beet (Beta vulgaris), common saltwort (Salsola soda), common alkaliweed (Cressa cretica), black pigweed (Trianthema portulacastrum), bachelor button (Gomphrena globosa), American elm (Ulmus americana), American alumroot (Heuchera americana), common felwort (Swertia perennis), great yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea), culantro (Eryngium foetidum), marsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris), common sanicle (Sanicula europaea), great masterwort (Astrantia major), sickle-leaved hare’s ear (Bupleurum falcatum), Mediterranean hartwort (Tordylium apulum), bur-parsley (Caucalis platycarpos), artedia (Artedia squamata), carrot (Daucus carota), false bishop’s weed (Ammi majus), black cumin (Bunium bulbocastanum), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), hog’s fennel (Peucedanum officinale), sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum), giant fennel (Ferula communis), broad-leaved sermountain (Laserpitium latifolium), common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium), Scots lovage (Ligusticum scoticum), garden angelica (Angelica archangelica), great water-parsnip (Sium latifolium), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), tubular water dropwort (Oenanthe fistulosa), cowbane (Cicuta virosa), fool’s parsley (Aethusa cynapium), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), shepherd’s-needle (Scandix pecten-veneris), bulbous-chervil (Chaerophyllum bulbosum), true masterwort (Imperatoria ostruthium or Peucedanum ostruthium), fennel (Seseli foeniculum, now Foeniculum vulgare), villous deadly carrot (Thapsia villosa), parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), alexander (Smyrnium olusatrum), dill (Anethum graveolens), caraway (Carum carvi), anis (Pimpinella anisum), celery (Apium graveolens), ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria). Credits to Isidre Blanc (dog-strangling vine), Stan Shebs (dogbane), Eurico Zimbres (starfish flower), Kristian Peters (rupturewort), Luigi Rignanese (saltwort), Michael J. Plagens (pigweed), Melissa McMasters (elm), Derek Ramsey (alumroot), Bernd Haynold (felwort), H. Zell (masterwort, hemlock, hogweed, cowbane, fool’s parsley, fennel, celery), Donald Hobern (hartwort), Stefan Lefnaer (bur-parsley), Daniel Villafruela (false bishop’s weed), Radio Tonreg (hog’s fennel), Jean Tosti (giant fennel), Meneerke Bloem (sermountain, true masterwort), Christian Fischer (angelica, water dropwort), Jeremy Halls (water-parsnip), G. Hagedorn (shepherd’s-needle), Franz Xaver (chervil, ground elder), Magnus Manske (parsnip), Tato Grasso (alexander), Matt Lavin (dill), Rolf Engstrand (caraway), Raffi Kojian (anis), Wikimedia users Lucarelli (silkvine), Rasbak (beet), Vinayaraj (bachelor button), Philipendula (gentian), Mokkie (culantro), Alians PL (pennywort), Fornax (hare’s ear), Ixitixel (carrot), Aroche (sea fennel), Stemonitis (lovage), Rlevse (coriander), and flickr users Gaspa (black cumin) and alliumherbal (cumin).

5.3 Pentandria Trigynia (“five males and three females”), five stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Rhus (sumacs), Viburnum (viburnums), Cassine (false olives), Sambucus (elders), Staphylea (bladdernuts), Tamarix (tamarisks), Turnera (turneras), Telephium (telephiums), Corrigiola (strapwort), Pharnaceum (carpetweeds), Alsine (chickweeds), Basella (Indian spinachs), Sarothra (orangegrass).

The 12 species in this image were in the order Pentandria Trigynia (from left to right, top to bottom): ladder’s sumac (Rhus coriaria), wayfarer (Viburnum lantana), Cape saffron (Cassine peragua), European black elder (Sambucus nigra), European bladdernut (Staphylea pinnata), French tamarisk (Tamarix gallica), yellow alder (Turnera ulmifolia), common telephium (Telephium imperati), strapwort (Corrigiola litoralis), chickweed (Alsine media, now Stellaria media), Malabar spinach (Basella alba), orangegrass (Sarothra gentianoides, now Hypericum gentianoides). Credits to Isidre Blanc (wayfarer), Sten Porse (bladdernut), Michael Wolf (yellow alder), Gideon Pisanti (telephium), Bob Peterson (orangegrass), and Wikimedia users Aroche (strapwort) and Shizhao (Malabar spinach).

5.4 Pentandria Tetragynia (“five males and four females”), five stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Parnassia (grass of Parnassus).

5.5 Pentandria Pentagynia (“five males and five females”), five stamens and five pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Aralia (spikenards), Barreria (a species of unresolved identity), Statice (statices), Linum (flaxes), Aldrovanda (waterwheels), Drosera (sundews), Crassula (crassulas), Suriana (bay cedar), Sibbaldia (sibbaldia).

5.6 Pentandria Polygynia (“five males and many females”), five stamens and many pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Myosurus (mousetails).

(From left to right, top to bottom) A single species, the grass-of-Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) made up the order Pentandria Tetragynia. The following eight species were in the order Pentandria Pentagynia: devil’s walkingstick (Aralia spinosa), common statice (Statice limonium, now Limonium vulgare), common flax (Linum usitatissimum), waterwheel (Aldrovanda vesiculosa), common sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), pine crassula (Crassula tetragona), bay cedar (Suriana maritima), creeping sibbaldia (Sibbaldia procumbens). The last species, the mousetail (Myosurus minimus), was the only one in the order Pentandria Polygynia. Credits to James H. Miller & Ted Bodner (devil’s walkingstick), Olivier Pichard (statice), Denis Barthel (waterwheel), Michal Rubeš (sundew), André Karwath (crassula), B. Navez (bay cedar), Wikimedia users Tigerente (grass-of-Parnassus), 4d44 (flax) and Fornax (mousetail), and flickr user pellaea (sibbaldia).

6. Hexandria (“six males”)

“Six husbands in each marriage”, i.e., six stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

6.1 Hexandria Monogynia (“six males and one female”), six stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Bromelia (large spiny bromeliads), Tillandsia (airplants), Renealmia (airplant mosses), Burmannia (bluethreads), Tradescantia (spiderworts), Pontederia (pickerel weeds), Galanthus (snowdrops), Leucojum (snowbells), Narcissus (daffodils), Pancratium (rain flowers), Crinum (swamplilies), Amaryllis (amaryllis and rain lilies), Bulbocodium (meadow-saffrons), Aphyllanthes (straw lily), Allium (garlics, leeks, onions, chives), Lilium (true lilies), Fritillaria (fritillaries), Uvularia (bellworts), Gloriosa (glory lily), Erythronium (dog’s-tooth-violet), Tulipa (tulips), Ornithogalum (stars-of-Bethlehem), Scilla (squills), Asphodelus (asphodels), Anthericum (St. Bernard’s-lilies), Leontice (lion flowers), Asparagus (asparaguses), Convallaria (lily-of-the-valley, solomon’s-seals), Polianthes (tuberose), Hyacinthus (hyacinths and bluebells),  Cyanella (little blues), Aletris (colicroots), Yucca (yuccas), Aloe (aloes), Agave (agaves), Hemerocallis (daylilies), Hypoxis (stargrasses), Acorus (sweetflags), Orontium (golden club), Haemanthus (blood lilies), Calaus (rotang), Juncus (rushes), Hippocratea (hippocratea), Richardia (pusleys), Achras (sapodilla), Prinos (winterberries), Berberis (barberries), Loranthus (mistletoes), Frankenia (seaheaths), Peplis (water-purslane).

The order Hexandria Monogynia included (from left to right, top to bottom): karatas bromeliad (Bromelia karatas), narrowleaf airplant (Tillandsia tenuifolia), Spannish moss (Renealmia usneoides, now Tillandsia usneoides), Virginia spiderwort (Tradescantia virginiana), common pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata), common snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis), summer snowbell (Leucojum aestivum), poet’s daffodil (Narcissus poeticus), Ceylon’s rain flower (Pancratium zeylanicum), American swamplily (Crinum americanum), belladonna-lily (Amaryllis belladonna), spring meadow saffron (Bulbocodium vernum, now Colchicum bulbocodium), straw lily (Aphyllanthes monspeliensis), garlic (Allium sativum), Madonna lily (Lilium candidum), imperial fritillary (Fritillaria imperialis ), perfoliate bellwort (Uvularia perfoliata), glory lily (Gloriosa superba), dog’s-tooth-violet (Erythronium dens-canis), garden tulip (Tulipa gesneriana), Prussian asparagus (Ornithogalum pyrenaicum), Alpine squill (Scilla bifolia), onion-leaved asphodel (Asphodelus fistulosus), branched St. Bernard’s-lily (Anthericum ramosum), common lion flower (Leontice leontopelatum), garden asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis), tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa), common hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis), common colicroot (Aletris farinosa), aloe yucca (Yucca aloifolia), tiger aloe (Aloe variegata), centuryplant (Agave americana), lemon lily (Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus), South American stargrass (Hypoxis decumbens), sweetflag (Acorus calamus), golden club (Orontium aquaticum), blood lily (Haemanthus coccineus), rotang (Calamus rotang), sharp rush (Juncus acutus), Florida pusley (Richardia scabra), sapodilla (Achras zapota, now Manilkara zapota), common winterberry (Prinos verticillatus, now Ilex verticillata), common barberry (Berberis vulgaris), western mistletoe (Loranthus occidentalis, now Oryctanthus occidentalis), common seaheath (Frankenia laevis), water purslane (Peplis portula, now Lythrum portula). Credits to Kurt Stüber (karatas, spiderwort, snowbell), Michael Wolf (airplant), Christian Hummert (daffodil), Muhammad Mahdi Karim (rain flower), Gerald J. Lenhard (swamplily), Stan Shebs (belladonna-lily), Muriel Bendel (meadow saffron), Hans Hillewaert (straw lily, asphodel), Jason Hollinger (bellwort), Jean-Jacques Milan (glory lily), Accord H. Brisse (dog’s-tooth-violet, seaheath), Andreas Eichler (squill), Albert Häglsperger (St. Bernard’s lily), Kristian Peters (asparagus), H. Zell (lily of the valley, sweetflag), Jayesh Patil (tuberose), Stanislav Doronenko (lemon lily), Bernard Dupont (rotang), Krzysztof Ziarnek (rush), Bob Peterson (pusley), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (winterberry), Teun Spaans (barberry), Reinaldo Aguilar (mistletoe), Olivier Pichard (water-purslane) and Wikimedia users KENPEI (pickerel weed, centuryplant, blood lily), Caroig (snowdrop), AfroBrazilian (garlic), Gidip (Madonna lily), Fizykaa (tulip), Patrice78500 (Prussian asparagus), Averater (lion flower), Eitan f (hyacinth), 1978 (stargrass), Aruna (sapodilla).

6.2 Hexandria Digynia (“sex males and two females”), six stamens and  two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Velezia (velezia), Oryza (rice), Atraphaxis (atraphaxis).

The small order Hexandria Digynia contained this three species (from left to right): velezia (Velezia rigida), rice (Oryza sativa), spiny atraphaxis (Atraphaxis spinosa). Credits to Barry Breckling (velezia) and Ori Fragman-Sapir (atraphaxis).

6.3 Hexandria Trigynia (“six males and three females”), six stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Flagellaria (whip  vine), Rumex (docks and sorrels), Scheuchzeria (podgrass), Triglochin (arrowgrasses), Melanthium (bunchflowers), Medeola (Indian cucumber and some asparagus), Trillium (trilliums), Menispermum (moonseeds), Saururus (lizard’s tail), Colchicum (meadow saffrons), Helonias (swamp pink).

These 11 species (from left to right, top to bottom) were in the order Hexandria Trigynia: whip vine (Flagellaria indica), patience dock (Rumex patientia), podgrass (Scheuchzeria palustris), marsh arrowgrass (Triglochin palustris), Virginia buchflower (Melanthium virginicum), Indian cucumber (Medeola virginiana), nodding trillium (Trillium cernuum), Canadian moonseed (Menispermum canadense), American lizard’s tail (Saururus cernuus), common meadow-saffron (Colchicum autumnale), swamp pink (Helonias bullata). Credits to Raffi Kojian (whip vine), Emőke Dénes (dock), Kristian Peters (arrowgrass), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (lizard’s tail), H. Zell (swamp pink), and Wikimedia users Bertblok (podgrass), Uleli (bunchflower), Jomegat (Indian cucumber), Fungus Guy (trillium), Nadiatalent (moonseed), Cquoi (meadow-saffron).

6.4 Hexandria Tetragynia (“six males and four females”), six stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Petiveria (guinea henweed).

6.5 Hexandria Polygynia (“six males and many females”), six stamens and many pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Alisma (water-plantains).

The guinea henweed (Petiveria alliacea, left) was the single species in the order Hexandria Tetragynia, and the common water-plantain (Alisma plantago-aquatica, right) was one of the few species in the order Hexandria Polygynia, Credits to Wikimedia users Toluaye (guinea henweed) and Bff (water-plantain).

Several plants that are indeed genetically related, such as those that would later be called “Umbelliferae” and “Liliaceae”, appear in the same orders already in Linnaeus’ System, but there are yet many bizarre discrepancies. For example, how could he classify the rice so distant from other cereals and grasses?

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References:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 1)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

Now that I finished introducing Linnaeus classification of animals (see here parts 1, 2, 3, and 4), it’s time to talk about the plants. This is Part 1. See here parts 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Linnaeus’ classification of plants actually started a little bit earlier than that of animals, in his work Species Plantarum published in 1753. The system he used there, however, did not change very much from the one presented in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, so I’ll begin from there, so that they will be following animals at the same pace.

If you have a considerable knowledge on living beings, you can easily notice that plants are much more “regular” in anatomy than animals. Even though plants are usually assymetrical, branched and with temporary organs, they all have basically the same general structure composed by a root, a stem, leaves and reproductive organs.

Linnaeus struggled to find ways to classify animals based on the same organs in all groups. As a result, his classification of animals had an “ugly” tree structure. There were 6 classes, each with different orders, i.e., it was impossible for him to use the same criteria to define the orders of mammals that he used to define orders of birds or worms, but in plants that worked and, as a result, the classification of plants had a “beautiful” table structure.

The 24 classes of plants were based primarily on the number of male sexual organs. The orders, on the other hand, were based on the number of female sexual organs. As a result, orders are not exactly subordinate to classes, but coexist with them in a “crossed”, tabular way.

1. Monandria (“single male”)

“A single husband in the marriage”, i.e., a single stamen in a hermaphrodite flower.

1.1 Monandria monogynia (“single male and single female”), a single stamen and a single pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Canna (canna lilies), Amomum (gingers and cardamoms), Costus (spiral gingers), Alpinia (ginger lilies), Maranta (arrowroots), Curcuma (turmeric and Chinese ginger), Kaempferia (sand gingers), Thalia (alligator flags), Boerhavia (spiderlings), Salicornia (glasswort), Hippuris (mare’s tails).

These eleven species were classified by Linnaeus as Monandria Monogynia, having “monogamic flowers” (from left to right, top to bottom): Canna indica, garden ginger (Amomum zingiber, now Zingiber officinalis), Arabic spiral ginger (Costus arabicus), Lesses Antilles’ ginger lily (Alpinia racemosa, now Renealmia pyramidalis), West Indian arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), turmeric (Curcuma longa), sand ginger (Kaempferia galanga), bent alligator flag (Thalia geniculata), erect spiderling (Boerhavia erecta), common glasswort (Salicornia europaea), common mare’s tail (Hippuris vulgaris). Credits to Wikimedia user Asio otus (Canna), Reinaldo Aguilar (garden ginger), Smithsonian Institute (spiral ginger, ginger lily, sand ginger), Alexis López Hernández (arrowroot), H. Zell (turmeric, mare’s tail), Meneerke Bloem (alligator flag), J. M. Garg (spiderling), Wikimedia user Ghislain18 (glasswort).

1.2 Monandria digynia (“single male and two females”), a single stamen and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Corispermum (bugseeds), Callitriche (water starworts), Blitum (goosefeet), Cinna (woodreeds).

The order Monandria Digynia, “a husband with two wives”, included the following species (from left to right): hyssop-leaved bugseed (Corispermum hyssopifolium), common water starwort (Callitriche palustris), strawberry goosefoot (Blitum capitatum), sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea). Credits to Yu Ito (water starwort), Derek Ramsey (goosefoot), John Hilty (woodreed).

2. Diandria (“two males”)

“Two husbands in each marriage”, i.e., two stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

2.1 Diandria Monogynia (“two males and single female”), two stamens and a single pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Nyctanthes (jasmines), Jasminum (more jasmines), Ligustrum (privets), Phyllirea (mock privets), Olea (olives), Chionanthus (fringetrees), Syringa (lilacs), Eranthemum (blue sages), Circaea (enchanter’s nightshades), Veronica (speedwells), Justicia (shrimp plants), Dianthera (water willows), Gratiola (hedgehyssops), Pinguicula (butterworts), Utricularia (bladderworts), Verbena (vervains), Lycopus (gypsyworts), Amethystea (Indian gems), Ziziphora (ziziphores), Monarda (bergamots), Rosmarinus (rosemary), Salvia (sages), Collinsonia (ox-balm), Morina (whorlflower).

The order Diandria Monogynia, “two husbands and a wife”, included the following species (from left to right, top to bottom): night-flowering jasmine (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis), common jasmine (Jasminum officinale), common privet (Ligustrum vulgare), mock privet (Phillyrea latifolia), olive (Olea europaea), white fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus), common lilac (Syringa vulgaris), Paris enchanter’s nightshade (Circaea lutetiana), bird’s-eye speedwell (Veronica chamaedrys), squirrel’s tail (Justicia betonica), American water-willow (Dianthera americana, now Justicia americana), Austral brooklime (Gratiola peruviana), pale butterwort (Pinguicula lusitanica), common bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), common vervain (Verbena officinalis), gypsywort (Lycopus europaeus), headed ziziphore (Ziziphora capitata), bee balm (Monarda fistulosa), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), common sage (Salvia officinalis), ox-balm (Collinsonia canadensis), prickly whorlflower (Morina persica). Credits to J. M. Garg (night-flowering jasmine), Wikimedia user Pancrat (jasmine), Andrew Butko (privet), legambientearcipelagotoscano.it (mock privet), H. Zell (olive, gypsywort, ox-balm), Ranko Tomić (lilac), Wikimedia user Pethan (enchanter’s nightshade, whorlflower), Wikimedia user Algirdas (speedwell), India Biodiversity Portal (squirrel’s tail), flickr user peganum (water-willow), John Tann (brooklime), Noah Elhardt (butterwort), Christian Fischer (bladderwort), Denis Barthel (vervain), Gideon Pisanty (ziziphore), Kurt Stüber (bee balm), Giancarlo Dessi (rosemary), Wikimedia user Duk (sage).

2.2 Diandria Digynia (“two males and two females”), two stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Paspalum (paspalums), Anthoxanthum (vernal grasses), Bufonia (bufonias).

2.3 Diandria Trigynia (“two males and three females”), two stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Piper (peppers and radiator plants).

The two first species (from left to right) were included in the order Diandria Digynia: knotgrass (Paspalum distichum) and sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). The last species, the black pepper (Piper nigrum) was in the order Diandria Trigynia. Credits to Wikimedia user Keisotyo (knotgrass), Christian Fischer (vernal grass), H. Zell (pepper).

3. Triandria (“three males”)

“Three husbands in each marriage”, i.e., three stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

3.1 Triandria Monogynia (“three males and one female”), three stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Valeriana (valerians), Hirtella (pigeon berries), Olax (mella), Tamarindus (tamarind), Cneorum (spurge olive), Comocladia (maidenplums), Melothria (creeping cucumber), Ortegia (ortegias), Loeflingia (pygmyleaves), Polycnemum (needleleaves), Cassytha (love vines), Crocus (crocuses), Ixia (corn lilies, irises, harlequin flowers), Gladiolus (sword lilies), Antholyza (sword lilies, bugle-lilies, etc), Iris (irises), Wachendorfia (redroots), Commelina (dayflowers and spiderworts),  Xyris (yelloweyed grasses), Schoenus (bogrushes, pricklegrasses and sawgrasses), Cyperus (sedges), Scirpus (clubrushes and spikerushes), Eriophorum (cottongrasses), Nardus (matgrass), Lygeum (esparto grass).

These 22 species were classified by Linnaeus as Triandria Monogynia (from left to right, top to bottom): garden valerian (Valeriana officinalis), pigeon berry (Hirtella americana), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), spurge olive (Cneorum tricoccon), creeping cucumber (Melothria pendula), Spanish ortegia (Ortegia hispanica), field needleleaf (Polycnemum arvense), love vine (Cassytha filiformis), saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), harlequin flower (Ixia bulbifera, now Sparaxis bulbifera), long-tubed painted lady (Gladiolus angustus), bulbil bugle-lily (Antholyza meriana, now Watsonia meriana), bearded iris (Iris germanica), straw redroot (Wachendorfia paniculata), common dayflower (Commelina communis), Indian yelloweyed grass (Xyris indica), black bogrush (Schoenus nigricans), papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), floating clubrush (Scirpus fluitans, now Isolepis fluitans), hare’s-tail cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum), matgrass (Nardus stricta), esparto grass (Lygeum spartum). Credits to Kurt Stüber (valerian, papyrus), INBio Costa Rica (pigeon berry), Wikimedia user Tau’olonga (tamarind), Jean Tosti (spurge olive), Smithsonian Institute (creeping cucumber), Luis Fernández García (ortegia), Mark Marathon (love vine), Wikimedia user KENPEI (crocus, bearded iris), Wikimedia user Ixitixel (harlequin flower), Andrew Massy (painted lady), Forest & Kim Starr (bugle-lily), Ori Fragman-Sapir (redroot), Bogdan Giușcă (dayflower), Wikimedia user Quoilp (yelloweyed grass), Yu Ito (clubrush), Kristian Peters (cottongrass), James K. Lindsey (matgrass), Wikimedia user Nanosanchez (esparto grass).

3.2 Triandria Digynia (“three males and two females”), three stamens and two pistils in an hermaphrodite flower: Bobartia (bobartias), Cornucopiae (hooded grasses), Saccharum (sugar cane), Phalaris (canarygrasses and cutgrasses), Panicum (panicgrasses and barnyard grasses), Phleum (cat’s-tails), Alopecurus (foxtail grasses), Milium (milletgrass), Agrostis (bentgrasses), Aira (hairgrasses), Melica (melicgrasses), Poa (meadowgrasses), Briza (quaking grasses), Uniola (sea oats), Dactylis (cocksfeet), Cynosurus (dogstail grasses), Festuca (fescues), Bromus (bromes), Stipa (feather grasses), Avena (oats and oatgrasses), Lagurus (hare’s tail), Arundo (canes, bamboos, reeds), Aristida (three-awns and grama grasses), Lolium (ryegrasses), Elymus (wild ryes), Secale (ryes), Hordeum (barleys), Triticum (wheats).

Among the species making up the order Triandria Digynia were (from left to right, top to bottom): Indian bobartia (Bobartia indica), common hooded grass (Cornucopiae cucullatum), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), common canarygrass (Phalaris cannariensis), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), timothy-grass (Phleum pretense), meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), wood millet (Milium effusum), common bent (Agrostis capillaris), silver hairgrass (Aira caryophyllea), hairy melic (Melica ciliata), Alpine meadowgrass (Poa alpina), big quaking grass (Briza maxima), sea oat (Uniola paniculata), cock’s foot (Dactylis glomerata), crested dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus), red fescue (Festuca rubra), rye brome (Bromus secalinus), European feather grass (Stipa pennata), common oat (Avena sativa), hare’s tail (Lagurus ovatus), giant cane (Arundo donax), six-weeks three-awn grass (Aristida adscensionis), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), Canada wild rye (Elymus canadensis), rye (Secale cereale), barley (Hordeum vulgare), common wheat (Triticum aestivum). Credits to Andrew Massyn (bobartia), Ori Fragman-Sapir (hooded grass), Bruno Navez (sugar cane), biopix.com (canarygrass), Kelly O’Donnell (switchgrass), Wikimedia user Rasbak (timothy-grass, foxtail, crested dog’s-tail, ryegrass, rye, barley), Gustav Svensson (millet), James K. Lindsey (bent), Wikimedia user Xemenendura (melic), Jerzy Opiła (meadowgrass), H. Zell (quaking grass, oat), Hans Hillewaert (sea oat), flickr user foxypar4 (cock’s foot), Kristian Peters (fescue), Kurt Stüber (rye brome, hare’s tail), Wikimedia user Prazak (feather grass), Peter Forster (giant cane), Marco Schmidt (three-awn grass), Matt Lavin (wild rye), Petr Filippov (wheat).

3.3 Triandria Trigynia (“three males and three females”), three stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Eriocaulon (pipeworts), Montia (blinks), Proserpinaca (mermaidweeds), Triplaris (ant tree), Holosteum (jagged chickweeds), Polycarpon (allseeds), Mollugo (carpetweeds), Minuartia (sandworts), Queria (more sandworts), Lechea (pinweeds).

These 8 species were in the order Triandria Trigynia (from left to right, top to bottom): ten-angled pipewort (Eriocaulon decangulare), water blink (Montia fontana), marsh mermaidweed (Proserpinaca palustris), ant tree (Triplaris americana), jagged chickweed (Holosteum umbellatum), four-leaved allseed (Polycarpon tetraphyllum), green carpetweed (Mollugo verticillata), thymeleaf pinweed (Lechea minor). Credits to James K. Lindsey (blink), Wikimedia user JMK (ant tree), Forest & Kim Starr (allseed), Wikimedia user Eric in SF (carpetweed), John Hility (pinweed).

4. Tetrandria (“four males”)

“Four husbands in each marriage”, i.e., four stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

4.1 Tetrandria Monogynia (“four males and one female”), four stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Leucadendron (sugar bushes), Protea (silver trees), Cephalanthus (buttonbushes), Globularia (globe daisies), Dipsacus (teasels), Scabiosa (scabioses), Knautia (more scabioses), Allionia (windmills), Hedyotis (starviolets), Spermacoce (false buttonweeds), Sherardia (field madders), Asperula (woodruffs), Diodia (buttonweeds), Knoxia (knoxia), Houstonia (bluet), Galium (bedstraws), Crucianella (crossworts), Rubia (madders), Fuchsia (fuchsias), Siphonanthus (Turk’s turban), Catesbaea (Lily thorn), Ixora (jungle flames), Scurrula (metrosexuals), Pavetta (pavettas), Avicennia (mangroves), Petesia (tropicroses), Mitchella (partridge berries), Callicarpa (beautyberries), Polypremum (juniperleaf), Penaea (leatherleaves), Blaeria (Blair’s heath), Buddleja (butterfly bushes), Exacum (tropicbouquets), Plantago (plantains), Scoparia (broomworts), Rhacoma (maidenberry), Centunculus (chaffweed), Sanguisorba (burnets), Cissus (sorrelvines), Epimedium (barrenworts), Cornus (dogwoods), Fagara (wild limes), Tomex (Malayan lilac), Ptelea (hoptrees), Ludwigia (water primroses), Oldenlandia (chay roots), Ammannia (redstems), Isnardia (water purslane), Trapa (water caltrop), Dorstenia (contrayervas), Elaeagnus (silverberries), Brabejum (wild almond), Krameria (rhatanies), Rivina (pigeonberry and hoopvine), Salvadora (toothbrush tree), Camphorosma (camphorwort), Alchemilla (lady’s mantles).

The diverse order Tetrandria Monogynia included many species, such as (from left to right, top to bottom): king sugar bush (Leucadendron cynaroides, now Protea cynaroides), silver leaf tree (Protea argentea, now Leucadendron argenteum), common buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), common ball flower (Globularia bisnagarica), wild teasel (Dipsacus fullonum), yellow scabiose (Scabiosa alpina, now Cephalaria alpina), common windmill (Allionia incarnata), ear starviolet (Hedyotis auricularia), slender false buttonweed (Spermacoce tenuior), blue field madder (Sherardia arvensis), blue woodruff (Asperula arvensis), Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana), azure bluet (Houstonia caerulea), European bedstraw (Galium rubioides), narrowleaf crosswort (Crucianella angustifolia), common madder (Rubia tinctorum), three-leaved fuchsia (Fuchsia triphylla), Turk’s turban (Siphonanthus indicus, now Clerodendron indicum), lily thorn (Catesbaea spinosa), common jungle flame (Ixora coccinea), metrosexual (Scurrula parasitica), Indian pavetta (Pavetta indica), Indian mangrove (Avicennia officinalis), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), juniperleaf (Polypremum procumbens), cup leatherleaf (Penaea sarcocolla, now Saltera sarcocolla), American butterfly bush (Buddleja americana), greater plantain (Plantago major), sweet broom (Scoparia dulcis), maidenberry (Rhacoma crossopetalum, now Crossopetalum rhacoma), chaffweed (Centunculus minimus, now Lysimachia minima), great burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis), sorrelvine (Cissus trifoliata), Alpine barrenwort (Epimedium alpinum), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), wild lime (Fagara pterota, now Zanthoxylum fagara), great wooly Malayan lilac (Tomex tomentosa, now Callicarpa tomentosa), common hoptree (Ptelea trifoliata), rattlebox (Ludwigia alternifolia), chay root (Oldenlandia umbellata), monarch redstem (Ammannia baccifera), water purslane (Isnardia palustris, now Ludwigia palustris), water caltrop (Trapa natans), true contrayerva (Dorstenia contrajerva), senjed (Elaeagnus angustifolia), wild almond (Brabejum stellatifolium), abrojo Colorado (Krameria ixine), pigeonberry (Rivina humilis), toothbrush tree (Salvadora persica), common camphorwort (Camphorosma monspeliaca), common lady’s mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris). Credits to Stan Shebs (sugar bush, windmill, plantain), Wikimedia user Chinasaur (silver leaf tree), Bob Peterson (buttonbush, buttonweed, juniperleaf), Hedwig Storch (ball flower), Muriel Bendel (teasel), Wikimedia user Dinkum (scabiose), flickr user john_amend_all2000 (starviolet), Smithsonian Institute (false buttonweed, fuchsia, maidenberry, sorrelvine, abrojo colorado), Wikimedia user Strobilomyces (field madder), Kurt Süber (woodruff), Rob Duval (bluet), Jan Ševčík (bedstraw), Michael Kesl (crosswort), H. Zell (madder, hoptree, lady’s mantle), Forest & Kim Starr (Turk’s turban), Louise Wolff (jungle flame), Indian Biodiversity Portal (metrosexual), Wikimedia user Vinayaraj (pavetta, Malayan lilac), Wikimedia user Vengolis (Indian mangrove), Wikimedia user Jomegat (partridge berry), John Murphy (beautyberry), Wikimedia user Nanosanchez (leatherleaf), Dick Culbert (butterfly bush), Alex Popovkin (chaffweed), Wikimedia user Anonymous Powered (burnet), Christian Hummert (barrenwort), Derek Ramsey (dogwood), flickr user homeredwardprice (wild lime), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (rattlebox), flickr user Lalithamba (chay root), Jayesh Patil (redstem), George Shramayr (water caltrop), Jim Conrad (contrayerva), Georg Slickers (senjed), Andew Massyn (wild almond), Wikimedia user KENPEI (pigeonberry), J. M. Garg (toothbrush tree), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Service du Patrimoine Naturel (camphorwort).

4.2 Tetrandria digynia (“four males and two females”), four stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Aphanes (parsley-piert), Cruzeta (Juba’s bush), Hamamelis (witch-hazel), Cuscuta (dodders), Hypecoum (wingpoppies).

The order Tetrandria Digynia included (from left to right) the common parsley-piert (Aphanes arvensis), the Juba’s bush (Cruzeta hispanica, now Iresine diffusa), the common witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), the European dodder (Cuscuta europaea), and the prostrate wingpoppy (Hypecoum procumbens). Credits to Wikimedia user Kenraiz (parsley-piert), Dick Culbert (Juba’s bush), Wikimedia user BotBln (witch-hazel), Michael Becker (dodder), Javier Martin (wingpoppy).

4.3 Tetrandria tetragynia (“four males and four females”), four stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Ilex (hollies), Coldenia (coldenias), Potamogeton (pondweeds), Ruppia (ditchgrasses), Sagina (pearlworts), Tillaea (pygmyweeds).

Linnaeus classified as Tetrandria Tetragynia (from left to right, top to bottom) the European holly (Ilex aquifolium), prostrate coldenia (Coldenia procumbens), claspingleaf pondweed (Potamogeton perfoliatus), ditchgrass (Rupia maritima), matted pearlwort (Sagina procumbens), and water pygmyweed (Tillaea aquatica, now Crassula aquatica). Credits to Hans Hillewaert (holly), J. M. Garg (coldenia), Kristian Peters (pondweed), Yu Ito (ditchgrass), Wikimedia user Density (pearlwort), Hörður Kristinsson (pygmyweed).

That is all for now, but there is a lot more to show. As one can clearly see, Linnaeus’ knowledge on plants was astonishingly higher than his knowledge on animals, afterall, he was a botanist and not a zoologist.

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References:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The history of Systematics: Animals in Systema Naturae, 1758 (part 4)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

This is the fourth and last part of this series of posts. See here part 1, part 2 and part 3.

I’m presenting here the 6 th and last class of animals: Vermes. It included basically anything that was neither a vertebrate nor an arthropod.

6. Vermes (worms)

Heart with one ventricle and one auricle; cold pus.
Spiracles absent?
Jaws multiple, various.
Penises several in hermaphrodites, androgynous.
Senses: tentacles, head absent (rarely with eyes, no ears and nostrils).
Covering: sometimes calcareous or absent, if not spines.
Support: neither feet nor fins.

Vermes were classified according the form of the body in 5 orders: Intestina, Mollusca, Testacea, Lithophyta and Zoophyta.

6.1 Intestina (internal ones or intestines), simple, naked and without appendages: Gordius (horsehair worms), Furia (the legendary worm), Lumbricus (earthworms and lugworms), Ascaris (roundworms and pinworms), Fasciola (liver flukes), Hirudo (leeches), Myxine (hagfishes) and Teredo (shipworms).

Linnaeus’ heterogeneous order Intestina included (from left to right, top to bottom) the water horsehair worm (Gordius aquaticus), the legendary hell’s fury (Furia infernalis), the common earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris), the giant roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), the sheep liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica), the European medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis), the Atlantic hagfish (Myxine glutinosa), and the naval shipworm (Teredo navalis). Credits to Jiří Duchoň (horsehair worm), Michael Linnenbach (earthworm), Wikimedia user GlebK (leech), Arnstein Rønning (hagfish), Poi Australia [poi-australia.com.au] (shipworm).

 6.2 Mollusca (soft ones), simple, naked and with appendages: Limax (land slugs), Doris (doriid sea slugs), Tethys (tethydid sea slugs), Nereis (polychaetes), Aphrodita (sea mice), Lernaea (anchor worms), Priapus (priapulid worms and anemones), Scyllaea (scyllaeid sea slugs), Holothuria (salps and man o’ wars), Triton (possibly some sort of sea slug), Sepia (octopuses, squids and cuttlefishes), Medusa (jellyfishes), Asterias (starfishes), Echinus (sea urchins and sand dollars).

Among the animals that Linnaeus put under Mollusca are (from left to right, top to bottom) the leopard slug (Limax maximus), the warty dorid (Doris verrucosa), the fringed tethydid (Tethys leporina, now Tethys fimbria), the slender ragworm (Nereis pelagica), the sea mouse (Aphrodita aculeata), the common anchor worm (Lernaea cyprinacea), the cactus worm (Priapus humanus, now Priapulus caudatus), the sargassum nudibranch (Scyllaea pelagica), the Portuguese man o’ war (Holothuria physalis, now Physalia physalis), the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), the moon jellyfish (Medusa aurita, now Aurelia aurita), the common starfish (Asterias rubens), and the European edible sea urchin (Echinus esculentus). Credits to Marina Jacob (slug), Wikimedia user Seascapeza (dorid), Pino Bucca (tethydid), Alexander Semenov (ragworm), Michael Maggs (sea mouse), glsc.usgs.gov (anchor worm), Shunkina Ksenia (cactus worm), Universidad de Olviedo (sargassum nudibranch), Hans Hillewaert (cuttlefish, jellyfish and starfish), and Bengt Littorin (sea urchin).

6.3 Testacea (covered with a shell), simple, covered by a calcareous shelter: Chiton (chitons), Lepas (barnacles), Pholas (piddocks and angelwings), Myes (soft-shell clams), Solen (razor clams), Tellina (tellins), Cardium (cockles), Donax (wedge shells), Venus (venus clams), Spondylus (thorny oysters), Chama (jewel box shells), Arca (ark clams), Ostrea (true oysters), Anomia (saddle oysters), Mytilus (mussels), Pinna (pen shells), Argonauta (paper nautiluses), Nautilus (nautiluses), Conus (cone snails), Cypraea (cowries), Bulla (bubble shells), Voluta (volutes), Buccinum (true whelks), Strombus (true conchs), Murex (murex snails), Trochus (top snails), Turbo (turban snails), Helix (land snails), Nerita (nerites), Haliotis (abalones), Patella (limpets and brachiopods), Dentalium (tusk shells) and Serpula (serpulid worms and worm snails).

Linnaeus’ diverse order Testacea included (from left to right, top to bottom): the West Indian green chiton (Chiton tuberculatus), the smooth gooseneck barnacle (Lepas anatifera), the common piddock (Pholas dactylus), the sand gaper (Myes arenaria, now Mya arenaria), the sheath razor (Solen vagina), the sunrise tellin (Tellina radiata), the great ribbed cockle (Cardium costatum), the abrupt wedge shell (Donax trunculus), the warty venus (Venus verrucosa), the spiny scallop (Spondylus gaederopus), the lazarus jewel box (Chama lazarus), the Noah’s Ark shell (Arca noae), the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis), the European jingle shell (Anomia ephippium), the blue mussle (Mytilus edulis), the rough penshell (Pinna rudis), the greater argonaut (Argonauta argo), the chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius), the marbled cone (Conus marmoreus), the tiger cowry (Cypraea tigris), the Pacific bubble (Bulla ampulla), the music volute (Voluta musica), the common whelk (Buccinum undatum), the West Indian fighting conch (Strombus pugilis), the caltrop murex (Murex tribulus), the maculated top snail (Trochus maculatus), the tapestry turban (Turbo petholatus), the Roman snail (Helix pomatia), the bleeding tooth nerite (Nerita peloronta), Midas ear abalone (Haliotis midae), the Mediterranean limpet (Patella caerulea), the elephant tusk shell (Dentalium elephantinum), the sand worm snail (Serpula arenaria, now Thylacodes arenarius). Credits to James St. John (chiton), Ruben Vera (barnacle), Valter Jacinto (piddock), Oscar Bos [ecomare.nl] (sand gaper), Guido & Philippe Poppe [conchology.be] (razor), femorale.com (tellin, cockle, scallop, ark shell, jingle shell, bubble, fighting conch, nerite, abalone, tusk shell), Hans Hillewaert (wedge shell, venus, nautilus, whelk), Richard Parker (jewel box, marbled cone), Jan Johan ter Poorten (oyster), Wikimedia user Hectonichus (penshell, volute), Bernd Hoffmann (argonaut), Samuel Chow (cowry), Frédéric Ducarme (turban), H. Krisp (Roman snail), Wikimedia user Esculapio (limpet), Matthieu Sontag (worm snail).

6.4 Lithophyta (stone plants), composite, growing on a solid base: Tubipora (organ pipe corals), Millepora (fire corals), Madrepora (stone corals and Acetabularia algae).

Three species listed by Linnaeus under Lithophyta (from left to right): organ pipe coral (Tubipora musica), sea ginger (Millepora alcicornis), zigzag coral (Madrepora oculata). Credits to Aaron Gustafson (pipe coral), Nick Hobgood (sea ginger), NOAA, U.S.’ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (zigzag coral).

6.5 Zoophyta (animal plants), growing like plants, with animated flowers: Isis (bamboo corals), Gorgonia (sea fans), Alcyonum (soft corals), Tubularia (pipe corals), Eschara (bryozoans and red algae), Corallina (coralline algae), Sertularia (bryozoans and hydrozoans), Hydra (hydras, cilliates and rotifers), Pennatula (sea pens), Taenia (tapeworms), Volvox (volvox algae and amLinebae).

Some species in Linnaeus’ order Zoophyta were (from left to right, top to bottom): the Venus sea fan (Gorgonia flabellum), the dead man’s fingers (Alcyonium digitatum), the oaten pipe hydroid (Tubullaria indivisa), the leafy bryozoan (Eschara foliacea, now Flustra foliacea), the coral weed (Corallina officinalis), the squirrel’s tail (Sertularia argentea), the grooved vorticella (Hydra convallaria, now Vorticella convallaria), the phosphorescent sea pen (Pennatula phosphorea), the pork tapeworm (Taenia solium), and the globe volvox (Volvox globator). Credits to Greg Grimes (sea fan), Bengt Littorin (dead man’s fingers), Bernard Picton (pipe hydroid, sea pen), biopix.com (bryozoan), Lovell and Libby Langstroth (coral weed), National Museums Northern Ireland (squirrel’s tail), D. J. Patterson (vorticella and volvox), Pulich Health Image Library (tapeworm).

Linnaeus may have made some mistakes while classifying mammals, birds, amphibians, fishes and insects, but nothing compares to the mess that his class Vermes was. It included animals from many different phyla and even red and green algae! Sometimes the same genus included both animals and plants.

And this concludes our presentation of animals in Linnaeus’ 1758 edition of Systema Naturae.

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References:

Linnaeus. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The history of Systematics: Animals in Systema Naturae, 1758 (part 2)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

This post is a continuation of The history of Systematics: Animals in Systema Naturae, 1758 (part 1). So be sure to read that first!

Here I’ll talk about two other classes in Linnaeus’ classification: Amphibia and Pisces.

3. Amphibia (Amphibians)

Heart with one ventricle and one auricle; cold, red blood.
Lungs breathing arbitrarily.
Jaw incumbent.
Penis double. Eggs mostly membranaceous.
Senses: tongue, nostrils, eyes, many ears.
Covering: coriaceous, nude.
Support: various, in some none.

Amphibians  were classified according to the anatomy of the limbs and included 3 orders: Reptiles, Serpentes, and Nantes. They are shown below with their respective genera.

3.1 Reptiles (crawlers), having four feet : Testudo (turtles and tortoises), Draco (gliding lizards), Lacerta (lizards, salamanders and crocodilians), Rana (frogs and toads).

Four species that Linnaeus put under Reptiles (from left to right): spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca), flying lizard (Draco volans), sand lizard (Lacerta agilis), and common frog (Rana temporaria). Credits to Gisella D. (tortoise), Charles J. Sharp (flying lizard), Krzysztof Mizera (sand lizard), and Monika Betley (frog).

3.2 Serpentes (creepers), without limbs: Crotalus (rattlesnakes), Boa (boas), Coluber (racers, vipers, cobras, pythons), Anguis (slow worms, worm snakes and sand boas), Amphisbaena (worm lizards), Caecilia (caecilians).

Six species put by Linnaeus under Serpentes (from left to right, top to bottom): timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), Boa constrictor, black racer (Coluber constrictor), slow worm (Anguis fragilis), red worm lizard (Amphisbaena alba), and bearded caecilian (Caecilia tentaculata). Credits to Pavel Ševela (boa constrictor), Wikimedia user Marek_bydg (slow worm), Diogo B. Provete (worm lizard)**, and bio-scene.org (bearded cacecilian).

3.2 Nantes (swimmers), having fins: Petromyzon (lampreys), Raja (rays), Squalus (sharks), Chimaera (ratfishes), Lophius (anglerfishes), and Acipenser (sturgeons).

The order Nantes comprised, among others (from left to right, top to bottom), the sea lamprey (Petrozymon marinus), the thornback ray (Raja clavata), the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), the rabbitfish (Chimaera monstrosa), the angler (Lophius piscatorius), and the sturgeon (Acipenser sturio). Credits to Wikimedia user Fungus Guy (lamprey), Wikimedia user Citron (rabbitfish), Wikimedia user Meocrisis (angler), and flickr user Aah-Yeah (sturgeon).

4. Pisces (Fish)

Heart with one ventricle and one auricle; cold red blood.
Gills external, compressed.
Jaw incumbent.
Penis absent. Eggs without albumin.
Senses: tongue, nostrils (?), eyes (no ears).
Covering: imbricate scales.
Support: fins.

Fish included 5 orders, which were defined mainly by the position of the ventral limbs in relation to the pectoral fins: Apodes, Jugulares, Thoracici, Abdominales and Branchiostegi.

4.1 Apodes (footless ones), without ventral fins: Muraena (eels), Gymnotus (knifefishes), Trichiurus (cutlassfishes), Anarhichas (wolffishes), Ammodytes (sand eels), Stromateus (butterfishes), Xiphias (swordfishes).

(From left to right, top to bottom) The Mediterranean muray (Muraena helena), banded knifefish (Gymnotus carapo), largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus), seawolf (Anarhichas lupus), lesser sand eel (Ammodytes tobianus), blue butterfish (Stromateus fiatola), and swordfish (Xiphias gladius) were classified as Apodes. Credits to Tato Grasso (muray), segrestfarms.com (knifefish), Daizu Azuma (hairfail), Wikimedia user Haplochromis (seawolf), and Muhammad Moazzam Khan (swordfish).

4.2 Jugulares (jugular ones), ventral fins in front of the pectoral fins: Callionymus (dragonets and flatheads), Uranoscopus (stargazers), Trachinus (weevers), Gadus (cods, haddocks, lings, etc), Blennius (blennies), Ophidion (cusk-eels, gunnels, bandfishes).

Six species included in the order Jugulares (from left to right, top to bottom): common dragonet (Callionymus lyra), Atlantic stargazer (Uranoscopus scaber), greater weever (Trachinus draco), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), butterfly blenny (Blennius ocellaris), snake blenny (Ophidion barbatum). Credits to Hans Hillewaert (dragonet), Roberto Pillon (stargazer), Hans-Petter Fjeld (cod, CC-BY-SA), Gianni Neto (blenny), Stefano Guerrieri (snake blenny).

4.3 Thoracici (thoracic ones), ventral fins below the pectoral fins: Cyclopterus (lumpfishes), Echeneis (remoras), Coryphaena (dolphinfishes and razorfishes), Gobius (gobies), Cottus (sculpins and hooknoses), Scorpaena (scorpionfishes), Zeus (John dories, lookdowns and boar fishes), Pleuronectes (flatfishes), Chaetodon (butterflyfishes, angelfishes, surgeons, etc), Sparus (breams, porgies, picarels, etc), Labrus (wrasses, parrotfishes, etc), Sciaena (snappers and croakers), Perca (perch, groupers, tilapias, etc), Gasterosteus (sticklebacks, lionfishes, pilot fishes, etc), Scomber (mackerels and tunas), Mullus (goatfishes), and Trigla (gurnards).

Seveteen species classified by Linnaeus as Thoracici (from left to right, top to bottom): lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpus), live sharksucker (Echeneis naucrates), pompano dolphinfish (Coryphaena equiselis), black goby (Gobius niger), European bullhead (Cottus gobio), bigscale scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa), John Dory (Zeus faber), European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), banded butterflyfish (Chaetodon striatus), gilt-head bream (Sparus aurata), brown wrasse (Labrus merula), brown meagre (Sciaena umbra), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), Atlantic mackereil (Scomber scombrus), bluntsnouted mullet (Mullus barbatus), and piper gurnard (Trigla lyra). Credits to Simon Pierre Barrette (lumpsucker), Wikimedia user Wusel007 (sharksucker), NOAA/FPIR Observer Program (dolphinfish), Stefano Guerrieri (goby and wrasse), Hans Hillewaert (bullhead), Wikimedia user Elapied (scorpionfish), Wikimedia user Kleines.Opossum (john dory), Wikimedia user Gargolla (plaice), Bernard E. Picton (butterflyfish), Roberto Pillon (bream and mullet), Albert Kok (meagre), Wikimedia user Dgp.martin (perch), Wikimedia user JaySo83 (stickleback), NOAA (mackerel), and Massimiliano Marcelli (gurnard).

4.4 Abdominales (abdominal ones), ventral fins behind the pectoral fins: Cobitis (loaches and four-eyed fishes), Silurus (catfishes), Loricaria (suckermouth catfishes), Salmo (salmon, trouts, smelts, etc), Fistularia (cornetfishes), Esox (pikes, gars, barracudas, etc), Argentina (herring smelts), Atherina (silversides), Mugil (mullets), Exocoetus (flying fishes), Polynemus (threadfins), Clupea (herring, anchovies, hatchetfishes, etc), and Cyprinus (carps, goldfishes, breams, etc).

Thirteen species that were part of the order Abdominales (from left to right, top to bottom): spined loach (Cobitis taenia), Wels catfish (Silurus glanis), suckermouth catfish (Loricaria cataphracta), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), bluespotted cornetfish (Fistularia tabacaria), northern pike (Esox lucius), European argentine (Argentina sphyraena), Mediterranean sand smelt (Atherina hepsetus), flathead mullet (Mugil cephalus), Tropical two-winged flying fish (Exocoetus volitans), paradise threadfin (Polynemus paradiseus), Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), and  common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Credits to J. C. Harf (loach), Dieter Florian (catfish), Hans-Petter Fjeld (salmon), Wikimedia user Jik jik (pike), Roberto Pillon (sand smelt and mullet), Wikimedia user Kolisberg (flying fish), segrestfarms.com (threadfin), and Wikimedia user Kils (herring).

4.5 Branchiostegi, lacking opercula or branchial fins: Mormyrus (elephantfishes), Balistes (triggerfishes and snipefishes), Ostracion (boxfishes, cowfishes, etc), Tetraodon (pufferfishes and sunfishes), Diodon (porcupine fishes), Centriscus (shrimpfishes), Syngnathus (pipefishes and seahorses), and Pegasus (seamoths).

The eight species shown above were all part of the order Branchiostegi (from left to right, top to bottom): Mormyrus caschive, queen triggerfish (Balistes vetula), yellow boxfish (Ostracion cubicus), Fahaka pufferfish (Tetraodon lineatus), spot-fin porcupinefish (Diodon hystrix), grooved shrimpfish (Centriscus scutatus), common pipefish (Syngnathus acus), and longtail seamoth (Pegasus volitans). Credits to Johny Jensen (Mormyrus), James St. John (triggerfish), flickr user zsispeo (boxfish), Reserva de la Biosfera Cabildo de Gran Canaria (porcupinefish), John E. Randall (shrimpfish and seamoth), and Hans Hillewaert (pipefish).

As you can notice, Linnaeus’ classification of amphibians and fish was even worse than that of mammals and birds, especially the classification of amphibians. It is clear that Linnaeus hated what he called amphibians more than anything. He describes them as the worst creatures, having a horrible appearence, and thanking God for not creating many of them.

Probably one of the most bizarre things is that Linnaeus put lizards and crocodiles in the same genus! Well, if he hated “amphibians” so much, I think he was not very familiar with their anatomy.

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Reference:

Linnaeus, Carl. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Nature…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The history of Systematics: Animals in Systema Naturae, 1758 (part 1)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

A long time ago, I wrote a post on how the classification of living beings in kingdoms have evolved since Linnaeus until the modern days. It was a brief introduction, not intended to detail it at levels below kingdom. Here, I intend to start a new series of posts where I’ll present the classification of life forms in lower levels. Each post will present a more recent classification compared to the previous one, so that you can see how things evolved through time.

So, let’s start again with Linnaeus, more precisely with the 10th Edition of his work Systema Naturae. This edition is the starting point of zoological nomenclature and was published in 1758.

In the Systema Naturae, Linnaeus divided “nature” in three kingdoms: Regnum Animale (animal kingdom), Regnum Vegetabile (vegetable kingdom) and Regnum Lapideum (mineral kingdom). As minerals are not lifeforms, we’ll not deal with it here, since this classification does not make sense at all for rocks. Maybe I’ll talk about it later in another post.

At first I would present the whole system here, but the post would become too big. Therefore, I decided to present animals and plants separately, but again there was too much to talk on animals. So, this post will deal only with mammals and birds. Other groups will be presented in subsequent posts. See amphibians and fish here, insects here and worms here.

Animals were defined by Linnaeus as having an organized, living and sentient body and being able to move freely. They were classified in six classes: Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta and Vermes.

1. Mammalia (Mammals) 

Heart with two auricles and two ventricles; warm red blood.
Lungs breathing reciprocally.
Jaw incumbent, covered.
Penis entering in viviparous, lactating.
Senses: tongue, nostrils, touch, eyes, ears.
Covering: hairs, few for the Indic ones, fewest for the aquatic ones.
Support: four feet, except for the aquatic ones, in which the posterior feet coalesced with the tail.

Mammals included 8 orders that were defined mainly on the arrangement of teeth: Primates, Bruta, Ferae, Bestiae, Glires, Pecora, Belluae, and Cete. They are shown below with their respective genera.

1.1 Primates (prime ones), having four parallel upper incisives and solitary tusks: Homo (humans), Simia (all apes and monkeys), Lemur (lemurs), Vespertilio (bats)

Four species listed by Linnaeus under Primates (left to right): human (Homo sapiens), Barbary macaque (Simia sylvanus, now Macaca sylvanus), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) and parti-colored bat (Vespertilio murinus). Credits of the photos to Pawel Ryszawa (macaque), Wikimedia Commons user Permak (lemur), and Markus Nolf (bat).

1.2 Bruta (brutes), absent incisives on either the upper or the lower jaw: Elephas (elephants), Trichechus (manatees), Bradypus (sloths), Myrmecophaga (anteaters), Manis (pangolins)

The order Bruta included (from left to right) the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), the pale-throated sloth (Bradypus tridactylus), the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla). Credits of the photos to Wikimedia Commons user Ji-Ellle (elephant), U. S. Department of the Interior (manatee), Fernando Flores (sloth), Graham Hughes (anteater), and Wikimedia Commons user nachbarnebenan (pangolin).

1.3 Ferae (ferocious beasts) six sharp upper incisives and solitary tusks, sharp claws: Phoca (seals), Canis (dogs, foxes and hyaenas), Felis (cats), Viverra (mongooses, civets and skunks), Mustela (weasels and otters), Ursus (bears, badgers and raccoons).

Linnaeus’ Ferae included (from left to right, top to bottom) the common seal (Phoca vitulina), the wolf (Canis lupus), the domestic cat (Felis catus, now Felis sylvestris catus), the large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha), the European polecat (Mustela putorius) and the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos). Credits to Maximilian Narr (seal), Gunnar Ries (wolf), Michal Osmenda (cat), flickr user tontravel (civet), Peter Trimming (polecat), and Steve Hillebrand (bear).

1.4 Bestiae (beasts) sharp upper teeth of indeterminate number, always more than one tusk on each side: Sus (pigs), Dasypus (armadillos), Erinaceus (hedgehogs), Talpa (moles), Sorex (shrews and moles), Didelphis (opossums)

Some species in the order Bestiae (left to right, top to bottom): wild boar (Sus scrofa), nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), West-European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), European mole (Talpa europaea), common shrew (Sorex araneus), and common opossum (Didelphis marsupialis). Credits to Henri Bergius (boar), Hans Stieglitz (armadillo), Jörg Hempel (hedgehog), Mick E. Talbot (mole), Agnieszka Kloch (shrew), and Juan Tello (opossum).

1.5 Glires (dormice) two upper and lower incisives, no tusks: Rhinoceros (rhinoceroses), Hystrix (porcupines), Lepus (hares and rabbits), Castor (beavers and desmands), Mus (mice, rats, hamsters, marmots, etc), Sciurus (squirrels)

Six species that Linnaeus classified as Glires (from left to right, top to bottom): Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), African crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata), mountain hare (Lepus timidus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), house mouse (Mus musculus), red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). Credits to Wikimedia Commons user FisherQueen (rhinoceros), Wikimedia Commons user Quartl (porcupine), Alan Wolfe (hare), Klaudiusz Muchowski (beaver), Wikimedia Commons user 4028mdk09 (mouse), and Hernán de Angelis (squirrel).

1.6 Pecora (cattle) many lower incisives, no upper incisives,  bifid hooves and four-chambered stomach: Camelus (camels, llamas), Moschus (musk deer), Cervus (deer and giraffes), Capra (goats and antelope), Ovis (sheep), Bos (cattle)

Among the species that Linnaeus put together as Pecora there are (from left to right, top to bottom) the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), the Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), the red deer (Cervus elaphus), the domestic goat (Capra hircus, now Capra aegagrus hircus), the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and the cattle (Bos taurus). Credits to Bjørn Christian Tørrisen (camel), F. Spangenberg (musk deer), Jörg Hempel (deer), Wolfgang Stadut (goat), Wikimedia user Jackhynes (sheep), and Andrew Butko (cattle).

1.7 Belluae (monster beasts), many obtuse incisives: Equus (horses), Hippopotamus (hippopotamuses, tapirs).

The order Belluae included the zebra (Equus zebra) and the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius). Credits to Trisha M. Shears (zebra) and Wikimedia user Irigi (hippopotamus).

1.8 Cete (sea monsters), cartilaginous teeth, aquatic animals: Monodon (narwhal), Balaena (whales), Physeter (sperm whales), and Delphinus (dolphins)

The order Cete included the following four species (left to right): narwhal (Monodon monoceros), bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) and common dolphin (Delphinus delphis).

2. Aves (Birds)

Heart with two auricles and two ventricles; warm red blood.
Lungs breathing reciprocally.
Jaw incumbent, nude, extended, toothless.
Penis sub-entering, without scrotum, in oviparous, calcareous crust.
Senses: tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears without auricles.
Covering: incumbent and imbricate feathers.
Support: two feet, two wings.

Birds included 6 orders defined mainly by the shape of the bill: Accipitres, Picae, Anseres, Grallae, Gallinae, and Passeres

2.1 Accipitrae (hawks), having a curved upper jaw with a sharp end: Vultur (vultures and condors), Falco (falcons, eagles, hawks), Strix (owls), Lanius (shrikes, kingbirds, waxwings)

Accipitres included (from left to right) the Andean-condor (Vultur gryphus), the American kestrel (Falco sparverius), the tawny awl (Strix aluco) and the brown shrike (Lanius cristatus). Credits to Linda Tanner (kestrel), flickr user nottsexminer (awl), and Charles Lam (shrike).

2.2 Picae (magpies), knife-shaped bill with a convex dorsum: Psittacus (parrots), Ramphastos (toucans), Buceros (hornbills), Cuculus (cuckoos), Jynx (wrynecks), Picus (woodpeckers), Corvus (crows and ravens), Coracias (rollers and orioles), Sitta (nuthatches), Merops (bee-eaters), Trochilus (hummingbirds), Crotophaga (anis), Gracula (mynas and grackles), Paradisaea (birds-of-paradise), Alcedo (kingfishers), Upupa (hoopoes), Certhia (treecreepers).

The follwing 16 species were all included in the order Picae (left to right, top to bottom): African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), white-throated toucan (Ramphastos tucanus), common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), Eurasian wryneck (Jynx torquilla), green woodpecker (Picus viridis), common raven (Corvus corax), European roller (Coracias garrulus), wood nuthatch (Sitta europaea), European bee-eater (Merops apiaster), red-billed streamertail (Trochilus polytmus), smooth-billed ani (Crotophaga ani), common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), greater bird of paradise (Paradisaea apoda), common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Eurasian hoopoe (Upupa epops), and Eurasian treecreeper (Certhia familiaris). Credits to Wikimedia user Fiorellino (parrot), Marie Hale (toucan), Wikimedia user locaguapa (cuckoo), Carles Pastor (wryneck), Hans Jörg Hellwig (woodpecker), Alan Vermon (raven), flickr user Koshy Koshy (roller), Paweł Kuźniar (nuthatch and treecreeper), Pellinger Attila (bee-eater), Charles J. Sharp (streamertail and ani), Wikimedia user Memset (myna), Andrea Lawardi (bird-of-paradise), wikimedia user Joefrei (kingfisher), Arturo Nikolai (hoopoe).

2.3 Anseres (geese), light bill, covered with skin and with a broad end: Anas (ducks, geese and swans), Mergus (merganser), Procellaria (petrels), Diomedea (albatrosses and penguins), Pelecanus (pelicans, cormorants, gannets, boobies and frigatebirds), Phaethon (tropicbirds), Alca (auks), Colymbus (loons and grebes), Larus (gulls), Sterna (terns), Rynchops (skimmers).

Eleven species listed by Linnaeus under Anseres (left to right, top to bottom): mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), common merganser (Mergus merganser), white-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis), wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), red-billed tropicbird (Phaethon aethereus), razorbill (Alca torda), black-throated diver (Colymbus arcticus, now Gavia arctica), common gull (Larus canus), common tern (Sterna hirundo), and black skimmer (Rynchops niger). Credits to Andreas Trepte (mallard), Dick Daniels (merganser and skimmer), Ron Knight (petrel), JJ Harrison (albatross), Nino Barbieri (pelican), Charles J Sharp (tropicbird), Steve Garvie (diver), and Arne List (gull).

2.4 Grallae (stilts), subcylindrical bill: Phoenicopterus (flamingoes), Platalea (spoonbills), Mycteria (wood stork), Tantalus (the wood stork again!), Ardea (herons, cranes and storks), Recurvirostra (avocets), Scolopax (woodcocks, ibisis, godwitts, etc), Tringa (sandpipers, lapwings and phalaropes), Fulica (coots, moorhens and jacanas), Rallus (rails), Psophia (trumpeters), Haematopus (oystercatchers), Charadrius (plovers), Otis (bustards), Struthio (ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, and dodoes).

Fifteen species that Linnaeus put in the order Grallae (left to right, top to bottom): American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), wood stork (Mycteria americana), the wood stork again (Tantalus localator), grey heron (Ardea cinerea), pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), wood sandpiper (Tringa glareola), Eurasian coot (Fulica atra), water rail (Rallus aquaticus), grey-winged trumpeter (Psophia crepitans), Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), great bustard (Otis tarda), and ostrich (Struthio camelus). Credits to Paul Asman and Jill Lenoble (flamingo), Andreas Trepte (spoonbill and avocet), Dick Daniels (woodstork), JJ Harrison (heron),  Ronald Slabke (woodcock), Wikimedia user Alpsdake (sandpiper), Axel Mauruszat (coot), Pierre Dalous (rail), Robin Chen (trumpeter), Wikimedia user TomCatX (oystercatcher), Wikimedia user Estormiz (plover), Francesco Varonesi (bustard), and Wikimedia user Nicor (ostrich).

2.5 Gallinae (chickens), convex bill with upper jaw bent over the lower jaw: Pavo (peafowl), Meleagris (turkeys), Crax (curassows), Phasianus (pheasants and chickens), Tetrao (grouse, partridges and quails).

Linnaeus’ Gallinae included (from left to right) the Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), the great curassow (Crax rubra), the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), and the wood grouse (Tetrao urogallus). Credits to Wikimedia user Appaloosa (peafowl), Arthur Chapman (curassow), Lukasz Lukasik (pheasant), and Wikimedia user Siga (grouse).

2.6 Passeres (sparrows), conic and acuminate bill: Columba (doves and pigeons), Alauda (larks and pipit), Turdus (thrushes, warblers and mockingbirds), Loxia (crossbills, cardinals, bullfinches, etc), Emberiza (buntings), Fringilla (finches, canaries, sparrows, tanagers, etc), Sturnus (starlings), Motacilla (wagtails, redstarts, warblers, wrens, robins, etc), Parus (tits and manakins), Hirundo (swallows and swifts), Caprimulgus (nightjars).

Eleven species considered as belonging to the order Passeres (left to right, top to bottom): wood pigeon (Columba palumbus), skylark (Alauda arvensis), blackbid (Turdus merula), red crossbil (Loxia curvirostra), yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella), chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), white wagtail (Motacilla alba), great tit (Parus major), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), European nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus). Credits to Nick Fraser (pigeon), Daniel Pettersson (skylark), Andreas Eichler (blackbird), Andreas Trepte (yellowhammer), Wikimedia user Thermos (chaffinch), Pierre Selim (starling), Malene Thyssen (wagtail), flickr user chapmankj75 (tit), Martin Mecnarowski (swallow), and Dûrzan Cîrano (nightjar).

Among the most peculiar things that we can highlight here are:

• Bats were put together with the primates!
• Rhinos were put together with rodents! This happened because Linnaeus based his classification of mammals on their teeth and the front teeth of rhinos resemble somewhat those of rodents.
• Hippos and tapirs were put in the same genus! The South American tapir was called Hippopotamus terrestris!
• Giraffes were classified as deers, and badgers and raccons as bears.
• Several passerine birds, such as the kingbirds, were considered birds of prey (Accipitres).
• Albatrosses and penguins were in the same genus!
• Storks, herons and cranes were all in the same genus too.
• On the other hand, the woodstork appears twice, as two species from different genera!

As one can see, Linnaeus was not so familiar with animals. He was, afterall, a botanist, but he did his best.

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Reference:

Linnaeus, Carl. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Nature…

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